What Is The Current Makeup Of The Senate

Upper business firm of the United states of america Congress

Coordinates: 38°53′26″Northward 77°0′32″W  /  38.89056°N 77.00889°W  / 38.89056; -77.00889

Us Senate
117th U.s. Congress
Seal of the U.S. Senate
Flag of the U.S. Senate
Type
Type	Upper house of the United States Congress
Term limits	None
History
New session started	Jan three, 2021 (2021-01-03)
Leadership
President of the Senate	Kamala Harris (D) since January 20, 2021
President pro tempore	Patrick Leahy (D) since January 20, 2021
Bulk Leader	Chuck Schumer (D) since January twenty, 2021
Minority Leader	Mitch McConnell (R) since January 20, 2021
Bulk Whip	Dick Durbin (D) since January 20, 2021
Minority Whip	John Thune (R) since January xx, 2021
Construction
Seats	100 51 (or l plus the Vice President) for a majority
Political groups	Majority (l) [a] Democratic (48) Contained (2) [b] Minority (l) Republican (50)
Length of term	vi years
Elections
Voting arrangement	Plurality voting in 46 states[c] Varies in 4 states GA and MS: Two-round organization ME: Instant-runoff
Last ballot	November 3, 2020[d] (35 seats)
Next election	November viii, 2022 (35 seats)
Coming together place
Senate Chamber United States Capitol Washington, D.C. United States
Website
senate.gov
Constitution
Usa Constitution
Rules
Continuing Rules of the U.s. Senate

The The states Senate is the upper chamber of the U.s.a. Congress, with the House of Representatives being the lower sleeping room. Together they compose the national bicameral legislature of the U.s..

The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article I of the United States Constitution.^[two] The Senate is composed of senators, each of whom represents a single land in its entirety. Each country is equally represented past two senators who serve staggered terms of half-dozen years. There are currently 100 senators representing the 50 states. The vice president of the United States serves as presiding officer and president of the Senate by virtue of that part, and has a vote only if the senators are equally divided. In the vice president'due south absence, the president pro tempore, who is traditionally the senior member of the party holding a majority of seats, presides over the Senate.

As the upper chamber of Congress, the Senate has several powers of advice and consent which are unique to it. These include the approving of treaties, and the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries, federal judges (including Federal Supreme Court justices), flag officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, other federal executive officials and federal uniformed officers. If no candidate receives a majority of electors for vice president, the duty falls to the Senate to elect 1 of the summit 2 recipients of electors for that office. The Senate conducts trials of those impeached past the House.

The Senate is widely considered both a more than deliberative^[three] and more prestigious^{[4] [five] [half dozen]} body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan temper.^[7]

From 1789 to 1913, senators were appointed past legislatures of the states they represented. They are at present elected by popular vote following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. In the early 1920s, the practise of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began. The Senate'southward legislative and executive business is managed and scheduled by the Senate majority leader.

The Senate chamber is located in the north wing of the Capitol Edifice in Washington, D.C.

History

The drafters of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily equally a compromise between those who felt that each land, since it was sovereign, should be every bit represented, and those who felt the legislature must directly represent the people, as the House of Eatables did in Corking United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland. This idea of having 1 bedchamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise. There was also a desire to have ii Houses that could deed as an internal cheque on each other. One was intended to be a "People's House" directly elected by the people, and with brusk terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to correspond the states to such extent equally they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national authorities. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.^[8]

Offset convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate. The name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders (from senex meaning former human being in Latin).^[9]

James Madison made the following comment about the Senate:

In England, at this twenty-four hours, if elections were open to all classes of people, the holding of landed proprietors would exist insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations remain just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the land against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to back up these invaluable interests, and to rest and check the other. They ought to be and so constituted equally to protect the minority of the opulent confronting the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability.^[10]

—Notes of the Surreptitious Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787

Article 5 of the Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that country's consent. The District of Columbia and all other territories are non entitled to representation or allowed to vote in either firm of Congress. They have official non-voting delegates in the House of Representatives, but none in the Senate. The District of Columbia and Puerto Rico each additionally elect two "shadow senators", simply they are officials of their respective local governments and not members of the U.S. Senate.^[11] The U.s. has had 50 states since 1959,^[12] thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.^[8]

Graph showing historical party control of the U.S. Senate, House and Presidency since 1855^[13]

The disparity between the well-nigh and to the lowest degree populous states has grown since the Connecticut Compromise, which granted each state two members of the Senate and at to the lowest degree ane member of the House of Representatives, for a full minimum of iii presidential electors, regardless of population. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming, based on the 1790 and 2020 censuses. Earlier the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, senators were elected by the individual state legislatures.^[xiv] Problems with repeated vacant seats due to the inability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, bribery and intimidation gradually led to a growing motility to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators.^[15]

Current limerick and election results

Members of the United states Senate for the 117th Congress

Current party standings

The party composition of the Senate during the 117th Congress:

Affiliation		Members
	Republican	50
	Democratic	48
	Independents	2[b]
Total		100

Membership

Qualifications

Article I, Section 3, of the Constitution, sets three qualifications for senators: (ane) they must be at to the lowest degree xxx years former; (2) they must take been citizens of the Usa for at least nine years; and (3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the time of their ballot. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62, James Madison justified this organisation by arguing that the "senatorial trust" called for a "greater extent of information and stability of character":

A senator must be thirty years of age at least; as a representative must be 20-v. And the quondam must have been a citizen 9 years; as seven years are required for the latter. The propriety of these distinctions is explained by the nature of the senatorial trust, which, requiring greater extent of data and stability of character, requires at the same time that the senator should have reached a period of life most likely to supply these advantages; and which, participating immediately in transactions with foreign nations, ought to be exercised by none who are not thoroughly weaned from the prepossessions and habits incident to foreign birth and education. The term of nine years appears to exist a prudent mediocrity between a total exclusion of adopted citizens, whose merits and talents may claim a share in the public confidence, and an indiscriminate and jerky admission of them, which might create a channel for foreign influence on the national councils.^[16]

The Senate (not the judiciary) is the sole guess of a senator's qualifications. During its early on years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. Every bit a outcome, four senators who failed to encounter the historic period requirement were nevertheless admitted to the Senate: Henry Clay (aged 29 in 1806), John Jordan Crittenden (aged 29 in 1817), Armistead Thomson Mason (aged 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, nonetheless, has not been repeated since.^[17] In 1934, Rush D. Holt Sr. was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the next June xix) to take the oath of office. In November 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the historic period of 29, but he reached his 30th altogether before the swearing-in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973.

The Fourteenth Subpoena to the United States Constitution disqualifies as senators any federal or land officers who had taken the requisite oath to support the Constitution merely who afterwards engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the Us. This provision, which came into force before long after the terminate of the Ceremonious War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Subpoena, however, too provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two-thirds vote of both chambers of Congress.

Elections and term

Originally, senators were selected past the country legislatures, not by popular elections. By the early on years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many equally 29 states had provided for popular ballot of senators past referendums.^[15] Popular election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the Seventeenth Subpoena.

Term

Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one-3rd of the seats are up for ballot every two years. This was accomplished by dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes), where the terms of 1-third expired after two years, the terms of some other third expired after four, and the terms of the last third expired after half dozen years. This arrangement was likewise followed after the admission of new states into the wedlock. The staggering of terms has been bundled such that both seats from a given state are non contested in the same general election, except when a vacancy is being filled. Current senators whose half dozen-year terms are set to elapse on Jan three, 2023, belong to Course Three. At that place is no constitutional limit to the number of terms a senator may serve.

The Constitution set the date for Congress to convene — Commodity 1, Department 4, Clause 2, originally gear up that date for the third day of Dec. The Twentieth Subpoena, all the same, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the 3rd day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Amendment too states that the Congress shall assemble at least once every year, and allows the Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules as it desires. Article ane, Department 3, provides that the president has the ability to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion.^[eighteen]

A member who has been elected, but not yet seated, is called a senator-elect; a member who has been appointed to a seat, simply not withal seated, is chosen a senator-designate.

Elections

Elections to the Senate are held on the first Tuesday later the first Monday in November in even-numbered years, Election Twenty-four hours, and coincide with elections for the House of Representatives.^[nineteen] Senators are elected by their land as a whole. The Elections Clause of the United states Constitution grants each state (and Congress, if it so desires to implement a uniform law) the power to legislate a method past which senators are elected. Ballot access rules for contained and modest political party candidates also vary from country to country.

In 45 states, a primary election is held first for the Republican and Autonomous parties (and a select few 3rd parties, depending on the land) with the general election following a few months later. In most of these states, the nominee may receive simply a plurality, while in some states, a runoff is required if no majority was achieved. In the full general ballot, the winner is the candidate who receives a plurality of the popular vote.

However, in five states, dissimilar methods are used. In Georgia, a runoff between the elevation ii candidates occurs if the plurality winner in the full general ballot does not also win a majority. In California, Washington, and Louisiana, a nonpartisan coating main (also known as a "jungle primary" or "top-two primary") is held in which all candidates participate in a single main regardless of party affiliation and the superlative 2 candidates in terms of votes received at the primary election advance to the general election, where the winner is the candidate with the greater number of votes. In Louisiana, the blanket principal is considered the general election and candidates receiving a majority of the votes is declared the winner, skipping a run-off. In Maine and Alaska, ranked-choice voting is used to nominate and elect candidates for federal offices, including the Senate.^[xx]

Vacancies

The Seventeenth Amendment requires that vacancies in the Senate be filled by special election. Whenever a senator must be appointed or elected, the secretary of the Senate mails one of three forms to the country's governor to inform them of the proper wording to certify the appointment of a new senator.^[21] If a special ballot for one seat happens to coincide with a general election for the country's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes office equally soon as possible after the election and serves until the original six-year term expires (i.e. non for a full-term).

The Seventeenth Amendment permits country legislatures to empower their governors to make temporary appointments until the required special election takes identify.

The fashion past which the Seventeenth Amendment is enacted varies amongst united states of america. A 2018 report breaks this down into the post-obit three broad categories (specific procedures vary among the states):^[22]

• Five states – Due north Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin – do not empower their governors to make temporary appointments, relying exclusively on the required special ballot provision in the Seventeenth Amendment.^{[22] : 7–8}
• Nine states – Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Texas, Vermont, and Washington – provide for gubernatorial appointments, merely also require a special election on an accelerated schedule.^{[22] : ten–xi}
• The remaining thirty-six states provide for gubernatorial appointments, "with the appointed senator serving the residue of the term or until the next statewide general ballot".^{[22] : 8–9}

In six states within the final category higher up – Arizona, Hawaii, Maryland, Due north Carolina, Utah, and Wyoming – the governor must appoint someone of the aforementioned political party as the previous incumbent.^{[22] : nine}

In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its police to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the late senator Edward Kennedy until the special election in Jan 2010.^{[23] [24]}

In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and a split ballot referendum that took result on the same twenty-four hours, but that conflicted with each other. The effect of the election-approved law is to withhold from the governor authorization to appoint a senator.^[25] Because the 17th Subpoena vests the power to grant that potency to the legislature – not the people or the state by and large – information technology is unclear whether the election measure out supplants the legislature's statute granting that authority.^[25] As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an interim senator to serve until a special ballot is held to fill the vacancy.

Oath

The Constitution requires that senators accept an adjuration or affidavit to support the Constitution.^[26] Congress has prescribed the following oath for all federal officials (except the President), including senators:

I, ___ ___, practice solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, strange and domestic; that I volition bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the part on which I am about to enter. So aid me God.^[27]

Salary and benefits

The annual salary of each senator, since 2009, is $174,000;^[28] the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $193,400.^{[28] [29]} In June 2003, at least xl senators were millionaires;^[30] in 2018, over 50 senators were millionaires.^[31]

Forth with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested after v years of service.^[29] Senators are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement Organisation (FERS) or Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). FERS has been the Senate's retirement system since January ane, 1987, while CSRS applies only for those senators who were in the Senate from December 31, 1986, and prior. As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement program and pay 6.2% of their bacon in Social Security taxes. The amount of a senator'due south pension depends on the years of service and the boilerplate of the highest 3 years of their salary. The starting corporeality of a senator's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $sixty,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.^[29]

Seniority

Seniority is a factor in the selection of physical offices and in party caucuses' consignment of committees.^[32]

Expulsion and other disciplinary actions

The Senate may miscarry a senator by a ii-thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the Senate's history: William Blount, for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Confederate secession. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators accept chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings – for example, Bob Packwood in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires but a simple majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-ballot races rather than face up certain censure or expulsion, such as Robert Torricelli in 2002.

Bulk and minority parties

The "majority political party" is the political political party that either has a bulk of seats or can form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if two or more than parties are tied, the vice president's affiliation determines which party is the majority party. The next-largest party is known every bit the minority political party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are mostly from the majority party; they accept counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (then long as they do non conclave support either of the larger parties) are not considered in determining which is the majority party.

Seating

At one cease of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. One hundred desks are bundled in the sleeping accommodation in a semicircular design and are divided past a wide central alley. The Democratic Political party traditionally sits to the presiding officeholder'southward correct, and the Republican Political party traditionally sits to the presiding officer'south left, regardless of which party has a majority of seats.^[33]

Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority inside the party. Past custom, the leader of each party sits in the front end row along the center aisle. 40-8 of the desks appointment dorsum to 1819, when the Senate chamber was reconstructed afterward the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 Burning of Washington. Further desks of like design were added as new states entered the Spousal relationship.^[34] It is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their proper noun on the inside of the desk's drawer.^[35]

Officers

Except for the president of the Senate (who is the vice president), the Senate elects its own officers,^[2] who maintain order and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate, and translate the Senate's rules, practices and precedents. Many non-fellow member officers are also hired to run diverse mean solar day-to-day functions of the Senate.

Presiding officeholder

Under the Constitution, the vice president serves as president of the Senate. They may vote in the Senate (ex officio, for they are not an elected member of the Senate) in the case of a necktie, but are non required to.^[36] For much of the nation'southward history the task of presiding over Senate sessions was i of the vice president's principal duties (the other beingness to receive from u.s. the tally of electoral ballots bandage for president and vice president and to open up the certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives", then that the total votes could be counted). Since the 1950s, vice presidents have presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, joint sessions, or at times to announce the result of pregnant legislation or nomination, or when a tie vote on an important issue is anticipated.

The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore (Latin for "president for a time"), who presides over the bedchamber in the vice president's absence and is, by custom, the senator of the majority political party with the longest tape of continuous service.^[37] Similar the vice president, the president pro tempore does non unremarkably preside over the Senate, just typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to a bulk-political party senator who presides over the Senate, usually in blocks of 1 60 minutes on a rotating ground. Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may go accepted to the rules and procedures of the body. It is said that, "in practice they are normally mere mouthpieces for the Senate'south parliamentarian, who whispers what they should practice".^[38]

The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the speaker of the House. The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the first senator who rises is recognized); ruling on points of social club (objections past senators that a rule has been breached, subject to entreatment to the whole bedroom); and announcing the results of votes.

Party leaders

Each party elects Senate party leaders. Flooring leaders human action as the party primary spokesmen. The Senate majority leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an banana leader (whip), who works to ensure that his party'southward senators vote as the party leadership desires.

Non-member officers

In improver to the vice president, the Senate has several officers who are not members. The Senate'south chief administrative officeholder is the secretarial assistant of the Senate, who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of jotter and supplies, and oversees clerks. The assistant secretary of the Senate aids the secretary'due south work. Some other official is the sergeant at arms who, as the Senate's master law enforcement officer, maintains order and security on the Senate premises. The Capitol Police handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for full general oversight. Other employees include the chaplain, who is elected past the Senate, and pages, who are appointed.

Process

Daily sessions

The Senate uses Standing Rules for operation. Similar the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the bedchamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are circulate alive on goggle box, commonly past C-Bridge 2.

Senate procedure depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of community and traditions. The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by political party leaders. A senator may block such an agreement, but in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officeholder enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer sometimes uses the gavel of the Senate to maintain gild.

A "hold" is placed when the leader's part is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or pass a measure. A hold may exist placed for any reason and tin be lifted by a senator at any fourth dimension. A senator may place a concur merely to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the nib, or to kill the bill. A bill tin be held for every bit long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to cake its consideration.

Holds tin exist overcome, but require time-consuming procedures such every bit filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications between a senator and the leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds". A senator may disclose the placement of a concur.

The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business. Nether the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is ever assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum call past "suggesting the absenteeism of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present. In practice, senators rarely asking quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are generally used to temporarily filibuster proceedings; usually, such delays are used while waiting for a senator to attain the flooring to speak or to requite leaders time to negotiate. Once the need for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call.

Debate

Argue, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed by internal rules adopted by the Senate. During a argue, senators may just speak if called upon by the presiding officeholder, only the presiding officer is required to recognize the kickoff senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officeholder has fiddling control over the form of the debate. Customarily, the bulk leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates even if some other senator rises first. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed as "Mr. President" or "Madam President", and not to another member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, senators do non refer to each other by name, but by state or position, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia", "the admirer from California", or "my distinguished friend the chairman of the Judiciary Commission". Senators accost the Senate standing adjacent to their desks.^[39]

Autonomously from rules governing civility, there are few restrictions on the content of speeches; there is no requirement that speeches pertain to the matter earlier the Senate.

The rules of the Senate provide that no senator may make more than than ii speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative twenty-four hours. A legislative twenty-four hours begins when the Senate convenes and ends with banishment; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for equally long equally they delight. Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the budget procedure), limits are imposed by statute. However, the right to unlimited fence is generally preserved.

Inside the United States, the Senate is sometimes referred to as "world's greatest deliberative body".^{[40] [41] [42]}

Filibuster and cloture

The filibuster is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an all-encompassing series of proposed amendments. The Senate may cease a delay by invoking cloture. In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate; all the same, if the matter before the Senate involves changing the rules of the trunk – this includes amending provisions regarding the filibuster – a two-thirds bulk is required. In electric current practise, the threat of delay is more important than its apply; most any motion that does not have the support of iii-fifths of the Senate effectively fails. This means that 41 senators can make a delay happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority, so a beak that already has bipartisan support is rarely bailiwick to threats of filibuster. Nonetheless, motions for cloture accept increased significantly in recent years.

If the Senate invokes cloture, the debate does not necessarily end immediately; instead, it is limited to upward to 30 boosted hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote. The longest filibuster speech in the Senate's history was delivered by Strom Thurmond (D-SC), who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Human action of 1957.^[43]

Under certain circumstances, the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 provides for a process called "reconciliation" past which Congress tin pass bills related to the budget without those bills existence subject to a delay. This is achieved by limiting all Senate floor debate to 20 hours.^[44]

Voting

When the debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes past vocalisation vote. The presiding officeholder puts the question, and members respond either "Yea/Aye" (in favor of the motion) or "Nay" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the effect of the vocalisation vote. A senator, all the same, may challenge the presiding officer'southward assessment and request a recorded vote. The asking may be granted simply if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present. In exercise, however, senators 2d requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators respond when their name is called. Senators who were not in the bedroom when their name was called may however bandage a vote so long as the voting remains open. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, but must remain open for a minimum of 15 minutes. A bulk of those voting determines whether the motion carries.^[45] If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to cast a tie-breaking vote. If the vice president is not present, the move fails.^[46]

Filibustered bills require a three-fifths bulk to overcome the cloture vote (which usually means sixty votes) and get to the normal vote where a simple majority (usually 51 votes) approves the bill. This has acquired some news media to confuse the 60 votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to corroborate a beak, with for example USA Today erroneously stating "The vote was 58–39 in favor of the provision establishing curtained acquit permit reciprocity in the 48 states that have curtained weapons laws. That vicious 2 votes short of the 60 needed to approve the measure".^[45]

Airtight session

On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a hole-and-corner or closed session. During a airtight session, the chamber doors are closed, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or non essential to the session. Closed sessions are rare and commonly held only when the Senate is discussing sensitive subject field matter such as information disquisitional to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during impeachment trials. A senator may telephone call for and strength a airtight session if the movement is seconded by at least one other member, just an agreement usually occurs beforehand.^[47] If the Senate does not approve the release of a clandestine transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national archives. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy.^[48] In 1973, the Firm adopted a rule that all commission sessions should exist open unless a majority on the committee voted for a closed session.

Calendars

The Senate maintains a Senate Calendar and an Executive Agenda.^[49] The former identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate floor deportment. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out by Senate committee(s) and awaiting Senate floor action. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session.

Committees

The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In exercise, however, the selection of members is fabricated past the political parties. Generally, each political party honors the preferences of individual senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall forcefulness.

Nearly committee work is performed by xvi standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such as finance or foreign relations. Each standing commission may consider, meliorate, and report bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the Judiciary Committee considers nominees for judgeships, and the Foreign Relations Committee considers nominees for positions in the Department of State.) Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive co-operative. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and bear witness.

The Senate also has several committees that are not considered standing committees. Such bodies are generally known every bit select or special committees; examples include the Select Commission on Ideals and the Special Committee on Crumbling. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, although the bulk of legislative work is performed by the continuing committees. Committees may be established on an advertizing hoc ground for specific purposes; for instance, the Senate Watergate Committee was a special committee created to investigate the Watergate scandal. Such temporary committees stop to be afterwards fulfilling their tasks.

The Congress includes joint committees, which include members from both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Some joint committees oversee independent regime bodies; for example, the Articulation Commission on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to brand advisory reports; for example, in that location exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the ability of articulation committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.

Each Senate commission and subcommittee is led by a chair (normally a fellow member of the majority party). Formerly, committee chairs were determined purely past seniority; as a result, several elderly senators connected to serve as chair despite severe physical infirmity or even senility.^[l] Committee chairs are elected, but, in practice, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: they command the committee's agenda, and so decide how much, if whatsoever, fourth dimension to devote to the consideration of a beak; they act with the power of the committee in disapproving or delaying a bill or a nomination by the president; they manage on the flooring of the total Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. This last role was particularly important in mid-century, when floor amendments were idea non to exist collegial. They also have considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their committee chairs are likely to achieve more skilful for their states than those who do non. The Senate rules and community were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen accept less power and are generally more moderate and collegial in exercising it, than they were before reform.^[51] The 2nd-highest member, the spokesperson on the committee for the minority party, is known in most cases as the ranking fellow member.^[52] In the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Select Commission on Ethics, however, the senior minority member is known as the vice-chair.

Criticism

Recent criticisms of the Senate'due south operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence every bit a event of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of cabalistic rules.^{[53] [54]}

The Senate filibuster is oftentimes debated. The Constitution specifies a simple majority threshold to pass legislation, and some critics experience the de facto three-fifths threshold for general legislation prevents benign laws from passing. (The nuclear pick was exercised by both parties in the 2010s to eliminate the delay for confirmations.) Supporters generally consider the delay to be an important protection for the minority views and a cheque against the unfettered single-party rule when the same party holds the Presidency and a majority in both the Firm and Senate.

Though this was an intentional part of the Connecticut Compromise, critics have described the fact that representation in the Senate is not proportional to the population as "anti-democratic" and "minority rule".^{[55] [56]} New York Times opinion columnist David Leonhardt points out^[57] that because small-scale states are disproportionately non-Hispanic European American, African Americans have 75% of their proportionate voting power in the Senate, and Hispanic Americans have just 55%. The approximately four million Americans that accept no representation in the Senate (in the District of Columbia and U.S. territories) are heavily African and Hispanic American. Leonhardt and others advocate for albeit Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico every bit states (both have more residents than the smallest existing states) to reduce this inequity.

Senate office buildings

External video
Senate Building, Washington DC, HD from 35mm

In that location are presently 3 Senate office buildings located along Constitution Avenue, north of the Capitol. They are the Russell Senate Office Building, the Dirksen Senate Function Edifice, and the Hart Senate Office Building.

Functions

Legislation

Bills may be introduced in either bedroom of Congress. However, the Constitution'southward Origination Clause provides that "All bills for raising Acquirement shall originate in the Firm of Representatives".^[58] As a outcome, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds.^{[59] [60] [61] [62]} Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. Notwithstanding, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House merely refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, in which money bills approved by Parliament have originated in the House of Commons per constitutional convention.^[63]

Although the Constitution gave the House the power to initiate acquirement bills, in do the Senate is equal to the House in the respect of spending. As Woodrow Wilson wrote:

The Senate's right to amend full general appropriation bills has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether exterior of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts simply even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them past the pop chamber measures of an nigh totally new character.^[64]

The approval of both houses is required for any bill, including a revenue nib, to become police force. Both Houses must pass the same version of the pecker; if there are differences, they may be resolved by sending amendments back and forth or by a conference commission, which includes members of both bodies.

Checks and balances

The Constitution provides several unique functions for the Senate that form its ability to "check and balance" the powers of other elements of the federal government. These include the requirement that the Senate may advise and must consent to some of the president'southward government appointments; also the Senate must consent to all treaties with foreign governments; it tries all impeachments, and it elects the vice president in the consequence no person gets a majority of the electoral votes.

The president can make certain appointments only with the advice and consent of the Senate. Officials whose appointments require the Senate'southward approving include members of the Cabinet, heads of well-nigh federal executive agencies, ambassadors, justices of the Supreme Courtroom, and other federal judges. Under Article 2, Department ii, of the Constitution, a large number of authorities appointments are subject to potential confirmation; even so, Congress has passed legislation to authorize the appointment of many officials without the Senate's consent (usually, confirmation requirements are reserved for those officials with the most pregnant terminal decision-making authority). Typically, a nominee is the first field of study to a hearing before a Senate commission. Thereafter, the nomination is considered by the full Senate. The majority of nominees are confirmed, just in a small number of cases each yr, Senate committees purposely fail to human action on a nomination to block it. In improver, the president sometimes withdraws nominations when they appear unlikely to be confirmed. Because of this, outright rejections of nominees on the Senate floor are infrequent (there have been merely ix Chiffonier nominees rejected outright in United States history).^[65]

The powers of the Senate concerning nominations are, all the same, bailiwick to some constraints. For instance, the Constitution provides that the president may make an appointment during a congressional recess without the Senate's advice and consent. The recess appointment remains valid only temporarily; the office becomes vacant again at the end of the next congressional session. Nevertheless, presidents have oft used recess appointments to circumvent the possibility that the Senate may turn down the nominee. Furthermore, every bit the Supreme Court held in Myers v. United States, although the Senate'southward advice and consent are required for the appointment of certain executive co-operative officials, it is not necessary for their removal.^{[66] [67]} Recess appointments accept faced a meaning amount of resistance and in 1960, the U.S. Senate passed a legally non-bounden resolution confronting recess appointments.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Senate as well has a office in ratifying treaties. The Constitution provides that the president may only "make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators nowadays agree" in gild to do good from the Senate'south advice and consent and give each land an equal vote in the process. However, not all international agreements are considered treaties under U.S. domestic law, even if they are considered treaties nether international law. Congress has passed laws authorizing the president to conclude executive agreements without action by the Senate. Similarly, the president may make congressional-executive agreements with the approving of a simple majority in each House of Congress, rather than a ii-thirds majority in the Senate. Neither executive agreements nor congressional-executive agreements are mentioned in the Constitution, leading some scholars such as Laurence Tribe and John Yoo^[68] to suggest that they unconstitutionally circumvent the treaty-ratification process. Nevertheless, courts have upheld the validity of such agreements.^[69]

The Constitution empowers the Firm of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other loftier Crimes and Misdemeanors" and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. If the sitting president of the United States is being tried, the chief justice of the United States presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit on oath or affirmation. Confidence requires a two-thirds majority of the senators present. A convicted official is automatically removed from function; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from property office. No further penalty is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; still, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.

The House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted (one resigned before the Senate could consummate the trial).^[seventy] Only iii presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton and both Trump trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson's case, the Senate vicious ane vote short of the 2-thirds majority required for conviction.

Under the Twelfth Amendment, the Senate has the ability to elect the vice president if no vice-presidential candidate receives a bulk of votes in the Electoral College. The 12th Subpoena requires the Senate to cull from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. Electoral Higher deadlocks are rare. The Senate has only cleaved a deadlock once; in 1837, it elected Richard Mentor Johnson. The Business firm elects the president if the Electoral Higher deadlocks on that choice.

Run across also

• Edward M. Kennedy Found for the Usa Senate
• Elections in the Us
• List of African-American United States senators
• United States presidents and control of Congress
• Women in the United states Senate

Notes

1. ^ Democrats are in the majority due to the tiebreaking ability of Democratic Vice President Kamala Harris, who serves ex officio as the president of the Senate.
2. ^ ^{a b} The independent senators, Angus Rex of Maine and Bernie Sanders of Vermont, caucus with the Democrats.^[i]
3. ^ Alaska (for its primary elections but), California, and Washington additionally utilise a nonpartisan blanket chief, and Louisiana uses a Louisiana primary, for their corresponding primary elections.
4. ^ Also the Georgia runoff election and the Georgia special runoff ballot held on January five, 2021.

References

1. ^ "Maine Contained Angus Rex To Caucus With Senate Democrats". Politician. Nov 14, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2020. Angus Rex of Maine, who cruised to victory terminal calendar week running as an independent, said Wednesday that he will caucus with Senate Democrats. [...] The Senate'south other independent, Bernie Sanders of Vermont, also caucuses with the Democrats.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Constitution of the United States". Senate.gov. March 26, 2009. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
3. ^ Amar, Vik D. (January 1, 1988). "The Senate and the Constitution". The Yale Constabulary Journal. 97 (6): 1111–1130. doi:10.2307/796343. JSTOR 796343. S2CID 53702587.
4. ^ Stewart, Charles; Reynolds, Mark (Jan 1, 1990). "Television Markets and U.S. Senate Elections". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 15 (4): 495–523. doi:10.2307/439894. JSTOR 439894.
5. ^ Richard L. Berke (September 12, 1999). "In Fight for Control of Congress, Tough Skirmishes Within Parties". The New York Times.
6. ^ Joseph S. Friedman (March 30, 2009). "The Rapid Sequence of Events Forcing the Senate's Manus: A Reappraisal of the Seventeenth Amendment, 1890–1913". Curej – College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal.
7. ^ Lee, Frances E. (June 16, 2006). "Agreeing to Disagree: Agenda Content and Senate Partisanship, 198". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 33 (two): 199–222. doi:10.3162/036298008784311000.
8. ^ ^{a b} "U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Section 1". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
9. ^ "Merriam-Webster'southward Online Dictionary: senate". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
10. ^ Robert Yates. Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787 . Retrieved March 17, 2017.
11. ^ "Non-voting members of Congress". Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
12. ^ "Hawaii becomes 50th state". History.com . Retrieved March 22, 2011.
13. ^ "Party In Power – Congress and Presidency – A Visual Guide To The Balance of Power In Congress, 1945–2008". Uspolitics.about.com. Archived from the original on November one, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012.
14. ^ Commodity I, Department iii: "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; each Senator shall have ane vote."
15. ^ ^{a b} "Direct Election of Senators". U.S. Senate official website. Retrieved April 23, 2019.
16. ^ Federalist Papers, No. 62, Library of Congress.
17. ^ 1801–1850, Nov sixteen, 1818: Youngest Senator. United States Senate. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
18. ^ Dates of Sessions of the Congress. United States Senate. Retrieved June 17, 2020.
19. ^ 2 U.S.C. § 1
20. ^ Brooks, James (Dec 14, 2020). "Election audit confirms win for Ballot Measure ii and Alaska's new ranked-pick voting system". Anchorage Daily News . Retrieved January 10, 2021.
21. ^ "The Term of A Senator – When Does It Begin and Cease? – Senate 98-29" (PDF). United States Senate. Usa Press Function. pp. fourteen–fifteen. Retrieved November 13, 2015.
22. ^ ^{a b c d east} Neale, Thomas H. (April 12, 2018). "U.Due south. Senate Vacancies: Gimmicky Developments and Perspectives" (PDF). fas.org. Congressional Inquiry Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 5, 2018. Retrieved Oct thirteen, 2018. NOTE: wherever present, references to folio numbers in superscripts refer to the electronic (.pdf) pagination, not as institute printed on the bottom margin of displayed pages.
23. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Appointment of U.s. Senator". Massachusetts Peachy and General Court.
24. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Appointment of US Senator Shall non be a candidate in special election". Massachusetts Nifty and Full general Court.
25. ^ ^{a b} "Stevens could keep seat in Senate". Anchorage Daily News. October 28, 2009. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009.
26. ^ United States Constitution, Article VI
27. ^ See: five U.South.C. § 3331; see also: U.S. Senate Oath of Office
28. ^ ^{a b} Salaries. U.s.a. Senate. Retrieved Oct 2, 2013.
29. ^ ^{a b c} "US Congress Salaries and Benefits". Usgovinfo.most.com. Retrieved Oct 2, 2013.
30. ^ Sean Loughlin and Robert Yoon (June thirteen, 2003). "Millionaires populate U.S. Senate". CNN. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
31. ^ "Wealth of Congress". Curlicue Call . Retrieved November viii, 2018.
32. ^ Baker, Richard A. "Traditions of the United states of america Senate" (PDF). Page 4.
33. ^ "Seating System". Senate Sleeping accommodation Desks. Retrieved July 11, 2012.
34. ^ "Senate Sleeping room Desks – Overview". United states Senate.
35. ^ "Senate Chamber Desks – Desk Occupants". United States Senate.
36. ^ "Glossary Term: vice president". senate.gov. United States Senate. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
37. ^ "Glossary Term: president pro tempore". senate.gov. Usa Senate. Retrieved Nov 10, 2016.
38. ^ Mershon, Erin (August 2011). "Presiding Loses Its Prestige in Senate". Curl Call. rollcall.com. Retrieved February viii, 2017.
39. ^ Martin B. Aureate, Senate Procedure and Practice, p.39: Every fellow member, when he speaks, shall address the chair, standing in his place, and when he has finished, shall sit down downwardly.
40. ^ "The World'south Greatest Deliberative Body". Time. July 5, 1993. Archived from the original on Baronial eleven, 2009.
41. ^ "World's greatest deliberative torso sentinel". The Washington Mail.
42. ^ "Senate reform: Lazing on a Senate afternoon". The Economist . Retrieved October 4, 2010.
43. ^ Quinton, Jeff. "Thurmond'south Filibuster". Backcountry Conservative. July 27, 2003. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
44. ^ Reconciliation, 2 U.S.C. § 641(e) (Procedure in the Senate).
45. ^ ^{a b} "How majority rule works in the U.Due south. Senate". Nieman Watchdog. July 31, 2009.
46. ^ "Yea or Nay? Voting in the Senate". Senate.gov. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
47. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Undercover Sessions of Congress: A Brief Historical Overview" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 6, 2009.
48. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Secret Sessions of the House and Senate" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 6, 2009.
49. ^ "Calendars & Schedules" via Senate.gov
50. ^ Meet, for examples, American Dictionary of National Biography on John Sherman and Carter Glass; in general, Ritchie, Congress, p. 209
51. ^ Ritchie, Congress, p. 44. Zelizer, On Capitol Colina describes this process; one of the reforms is that seniority inside the bulk political party can now be bypassed, so that chairs practice run the risk of being deposed by their colleagues. See in item p. 17, for the unreformed Congress, and pp.188–ix, for the Stevenson reforms of 1977.
52. ^ Ritchie, Congress, pp .44, 175, 209
53. ^ Mark Murray (Baronial 2, 2010). "The inefficient Senate". Firstread.msnbc.msn.com. Archived from the original on Baronial 10, 2010. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
54. ^ Packer, George (Jan seven, 2009). "Filibusters and arcane obstructions in the Senate". The New Yorker . Retrieved October 4, 2010.
55. ^ How Democratic Is the American Constitution?
56. ^ Sizing Upwardly the Senate
57. ^ The Senate: Affirmative Activity for White People
58. ^ "Constitution of the Usa". Senate.gov. Retrieved January 1, 2012.
59. ^ Saturno, James. "The Origination Clause of the U.S. Constitution: Estimation and Enforcement", CRS Report for Congress (Mar-xv-2011).
60. ^ Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the U.s.a. Senate, p. 188 (Taylor & Francis 2004).
61. ^ Woodrow Wilson wrote that the Senate has extremely broad amendment authority with regard to appropriations bills, as distinguished from bills that levy taxes. Meet Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics, pp. 155–156 (Transaction Publishers 2002).
62. ^ According to the Library of Congress, the Constitution provides the origination requirement for revenue bills, whereas tradition provides the origination requirement for appropriation bills. Run across Sullivan, John. "How Our Laws Are Fabricated Archived Oct xvi, 2015, at the Wayback Auto", Library of Congress (accessed August 26, 2013).
63. ^ Sargent, Noel. "Bills for Raising Revenue Nether the Federal and State Constitutions", Minnesota Police Review, Vol. 4, p. 330 (1919).
64. ^ Wilson Congressional Government, Chapter 3: "Revenue and Supply". Text common to all printings or "editions"; in Papers of Woodrow Wilson it is Vol.4 (1968), p.91; for unchanged text, encounter p. 13, ibid.
65. ^ King, Elizabeth. "This Is What Happened Last Time a Chiffonier Nomination Was Rejected". time.com. Time U.s., LLC. Retrieved Apr 11, 2020.
66. ^ Recess Appointments FAQ (PDF). US Senate, Congressional Research Service. Retrieved November 20, 2007
67. ^ Ritchie, Congress p. 178.
68. ^ Bolton, John R. (January 5, 2009). "Restore the Senate's Treaty Ability". The New York Times.
69. ^ For an example, and a word of the literature, see Laurence Tribe, "Taking Text and Construction Seriously: Reflections on Free-Form Method in Ramble Interpretation", Harvard Law Review, Vol. 108, No. 6. (April 1995), pp. 1221–1303.
70. ^ Consummate list of impeachment trials. Archived Dec 8, 2010, at WebCite United States Senate. Retrieved November 20, 2007

Bibliography

• Baker, Richard A. The Senate of the Usa: A Bicentennial History Krieger, 1988.
• Baker, Richard A., ed., Outset Amid Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century Congressional Quarterly, 1991.
• Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Almanac of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every 2 years
• David W. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins. Political party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
• Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson. Vol. three: Master of the Senate. Knopf, 2002.
• Comiskey, Michael. Seeking Justices: The Judging of Supreme Court Nominees U. Printing of Kansas, 2004.
• Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation XII: 2005–2008: Politics and Policy in the 109th and 110th Congresses (2010); massive, highly detailed summary of Congressional activity, likewise every bit major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Written report and the almanac CQ annual. The Congress and the Nation 2009–2012 vol 13 has been appear for September 2014 publication.
  • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004 (2005);
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001 (2002)
  • Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996 (1998)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992 (1993)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988 (1989)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984 (1985)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980 (1981)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976 (1977)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972 (1973)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968 (1969)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964 (1965), the showtime of the series
• Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations. Cambridge U. Printing, 2001.
• Davidson, Roger H., and Walter J. Oleszek, eds. (1998). Congress and Its Members, 6th ed. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly. (Legislative process, informal practices, and member information)
• Gould, Lewis L. The Most Exclusive Gild: A History Of The Modern Usa Senate (2005)
• Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Graphic symbol: Hubris and Heroism in the U.Due south. Senate, 1789–1990 Sharpe, 1997.
• Hoebeke, C. H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Subpoena. Transaction Books, 1995. (Popular elections of senators)
• Lee, Frances E. and Oppenheimer, Bruce I. Sizing Upwards the Senate: The Unequal Consequences of Equal Representation. U. of Chicago Press 1999. 304 pp.
• MacNeil, Neil and Richard A. Bakery. The American Senate: An Insider'due south History. Oxford University Printing, 2013. 455 pp.
• McFarland, Ernest W. The Ernest W. McFarland Papers: The United States Senate Years, 1940–1952. Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995 (Democratic majority leader 1950–52)
• Malsberger, John Due west. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. Susquehanna U. Press 2000
• Isle of mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Ceremonious Rights. Harcourt Brace, 1996
• Ritchie, Donald A. (1991). Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. Harvard Academy Printing.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2001). The Congress of the United States: A Student Companion (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2010). The U.S. Congress: A Very Brusk Introduction. Oxford University Press.
• Rothman, David. Politics and Power the Usa Senate 1869–1901 (1966)
• Swift, Elaine K. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Change in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Press, 1996
• Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Dissimilar Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 Sharpe, 1999 (Senate Democratic leader)
• VanBeek, Stephen D. Post-Passage Politics: Bicameral Resolution in Congress. U. of Pittsburgh Press 1995
• Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: E'er a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. (Arkansas Democrat who was Bulk leader in 1930s)
• Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1885; also 15th ed. 1900, repr. by photoreprint, Transaction books, 2002.
• Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the The states Senate Johns Hopkins U. Press, 2004. (Early on history)
• Zelizer, Julian E. On Capitol Hill : The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006)
• Zelizer, Julian E., ed. The American Congress: The Building of Democracy (2004) (overview)

Official Senate histories

• Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774–1989

The following are published by the Senate Historical Role.

• Robert Byrd. The Senate, 1789–1989. Iv volumes.
  • Vol. I, a chronological series of addresses on the history of the Senate
  • Vol. II, a topical serial of addresses on various aspects of the Senate's performance and powers
  • Vol. III, Archetype Speeches, 1830–1993
  • Vol. 4, Historical Statistics, 1789–1992
• Dole, Bob. Historical Almanac of the United States Senate
• Hatfield, Marker O., with the Senate Historical Office. Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789–1993 (essays reprinted online)
• Frumin, Alan S. Riddick's Senate Procedure. Washington, D.C.: Government Press Office, 1992.

External links

This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated four Baronial 2006 (2006-08-04), and does not reflect subsequent edits.

• The United States Senate Official Website
  • Sortable contact data
  • Senate Sleeping accommodation Map
  • Standing Rules of the Senate
  • Biographical Directory of the United states of america Congress, 1774 to Present
• Listing of Senators who died in office, via PoliticalGraveyard.com
• Chart of all U.S. Senate seat-holders, past land, 1978–present, via Texas Tech Academy
• A New Nation Votes: American Ballot Returns 1787–1825 Archived July 25, 2008, at the Wayback Auto, via Tufts Academy
• Bill Hammons' American Politics Guide – Members of Congress past Committee and Land with Partisan Voting Index Archived December 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
• Works by or nearly Usa Senate at Internet Archive
• First U.Southward. Senate session aired by C-SPAN via C-Span
• Senate Manual via govinfo.gov (U.South. Government Publishing Office)
• United states of america Senate Calendars and Schedules
• Information about U.S. Bills and Resolutions Archived Jan 2, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
• Works past U.s.a. Senate at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

What Is The Current Makeup Of The Senate,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate

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